The 100 (buku)

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The 100

Cover edisi 1992, The 100, peringkat orang paling berpengaruh dalam sejarah
Penulis	Michael H. Hart
Negara	Amerika Serikat
Bahasa	Inggris
Genre	Buku pengetahuan
Penerbit	Carol Publishing Group/Citadel Press
Tanggal terbit	1978
Terbitan dalam Bahasa Inggris	1978
Halaman	576
ISBN	0-8065-1350-0

The 100 merupakan buku karya Michael H. Hart yang diterbitkan pada tahun 1978. Buku ini memuat 100 tokoh yang ia rasa memiliki pengaruh terkuat dalam sejarah manusia. Bukunya secara hangat diperdebatkan, konsep bukunya secara luas ditiru. Penting untuk dicatat bahwa Dr. Hart tidak memasukkan orang terbesar. Kriterianya ialah yang berpengaruh.

Buku ini dicetak kembali pada 1992 dengan beberapa revisi nyata terhadap daftar urutan 100 dan pangkat luar biasa mereka. Terutama di antara revisi itu ialah penurunan pangkat tokoh komunis seperti Lenin dan Joseph Stalin, dan pengenalan Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev. Edisi ini juga memuat Edward de Vere menggantikan William Shakespeare. Hart menggantikan Niels Henrik David Bohr dan Antoine Henri Becquerel dengan Ernest Rutherford, juga membetulkan kesalahan dalam edisi pertama. Henry Ford juga dimasukkan di sini dari yang sekedar "Tokoh-tokoh Terhormat", menggantikan Pablo Picasso. Akhirnya, urutan itu ditata kembali.

100 Tokoh menurut Michael H. Hart

Peringkat	Nama	Pengaruh
1	Nabi Muhammad	Penyebar agama Islam, penguasa Arabia, mempunyai karier politik dan keagamaan yang luar biasa, namun tetap seimbang dan serasi, mengakibatkan Nabi Muhammad memiliki banyak pengikut, dan juga menjadi panutan seluruh masyarakat dunia hingga saat ini.
2	Isaac Newton	Fisikawan, pencetus Teori Gravitasi umum, Hukum gerak
3	Yesus / Nabi Isa	Isa Al Masih Kristen
4	Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)	Pendiri agama Buddha
5	Kong Hu Cu	Pendiri agama Kong Hu Cu
6	Santo Paulus	Penyebar ajaran Kristen
7	Ts'ai Lun	Penemu kertas
8	Johann Gutenberg	Mengembangkan mesin cetak, mencetak Alkitab
9	Christopher Columbus	Penjelajah, memimpin orang-orang Eropa ke Amerika
10	Albert Einstein	Fisikawan, penemu Teori Relativitas
11	Louis Pasteur	Ilmuwan, penemu Pasteurisasi
12	Galileo Galilei	Astronom, secara akurat mengemukakan teori Heliosentris
13	Aristoteles	Filsuf Yunani yang berpengaruh
14	Euclides	Matematikawan, membuktikan tentang Geometri
15	Nabi Musa	Nabi terbesar Yahudi
16	Charles Robert Darwin	Biologis, mendeskripsikan teori Evolusi
17	Kaisar Qin Shi Huang-Di	Kaisar Tiongkok
18	Augustus Caesar (Kaisar Agustus)	Kaisar pertama Kekaisaran Romawi
19	Nicolaus Copernicus	Astronom, salah satu tokoh Teori Heliosentris
20	Antoine Laurent Lavoisier	Bapak Kimia modern, Filsuf dan Ekonom
21	Constantine yang Agung	Kaisar Romawi yang menjadikan agama Kristen sebagai agama resmi negara
22	James Watt	Mengembangkan Mesin uap
23	Michael Faraday	Fisikawan, Kimiawan, menemukan Induksi Elektromagnetik
24	James Clerk Maxwell	Fisikawan, penemu Spektrum Elektromagnetik
25	Martin Luther	Pendiri agama Protestan dan aliran Lutheran
26	George Washington	Presiden pertama Amerika Serikat
27	Karl Heinrich Marx	Bapak Komunisme
28	Orville Wright dan Wilbur Wright	Penemu Pesawat terbang
29	Genghis Khan	Penakluk dari bangsa Mongol
30	Adam Smith	Ekonom, pelopor Kapitalisme
31	Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford	Kemungkinan menulis karya yang berkaitan dengan William Shakespeare
32	John Dalton	Kimiawan, Fisikawan, penemu Teori Atom, Hukum Tekanan Parsial (Hukum Dalton)
33	Alexander yang Agung / Iskandar Zulkarnain	Penakluk dari Makedonia
34	Kaisar Napoleon Bonaparte	Penakluk dari bangsa Perancis
35	Thomas Alva Edison	Penemu bola lampu dan Fonograf, dll.
36	Antony van Leeuwenhoek	Ahli Mikroskop, mempelajari kehidupan mikroskopis
37	William Thomas Green Morton	Pelopor Anestesiologi
38	Guglielmo Marconi	Penemu Radio
39	Adolf Hitler	Penakluk, memimpin Blok Poros dalam Perang Dunia II
40	Plato	Filsuf Yunani
41	Oliver Cromwell	Politikus Inggris dan pemimpin militer
42	Alexander Graham Bell	Salah seorang penemu Telepon
43	Alexander Fleming	Penemu Penisilin, memajukan Bakteriologi, Imunologi dan Kemoterapi
44	John Locke	Filsuf dan Teolog liberal
45	Ludwig van Beethoven	Komponis musik klasik
46	Werner Karl Heisenberg	Pencetus Prinsip Ketidakpastian
47	Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre	Penemu/pelopor Fotografi
48	Simon Bolivar	Pahlawan nasional dari Venezuela, Kolombia, Ekuador, Peru, dan Bolivia
49	René Descartes	Filsuf Rasionalis dan matematikawan
50	Umar bin al-Khattab	Khalifah Ar-Rasyidin kedua, memperluas Daulah Khilafah Islamiyah. Penerus cita-cita Nabi Muhammad SAW.
51	Paus Urbanus II	Penyeru Perang Salib
52	Michelangelo Buonarroti	Pelukis, pematung, arsitek
53	Asoka	Raja India yang masuk dan mengembangkan agama Buddha
54	Santo Augustinus	Teolog Kristen awal
55	William Harvey	Penemu sirkulasi darah
56	Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson	Fisikawan
57	John Calvin	Tokoh Reformasi Gereja, pendiri Calvinisme
58	Gregor Johann Mendel	Penemu teori genetika
59	Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck	Fisikawan, mengemukakan Termodinamika
60	Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister	Pelaku penemuan Antiseptik yang secara besar mengurangi kematian akibat pembedahan
61	Nikolaus August Otto	Penemu mesin pembakaran 4 tak
62	Francisco Pizarro	Penakluk dari bangsa Spanyol yang menaklukkan Kerajaan Inka di Amerika Selatan
63	Hernando Cortes	Penakluk dari bangsa Spanyol yang menaklukkan Meksiko
64	Thomas Jefferson	Presiden ketiga AS
65	Ratu Isabella I	Penguasa Spanyol, penyokong Cristopher Colombus
66	Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzugashvili	Tokoh revolusioner dan penguasa Uni Soviet
67	Julius Caesar	Penguasa Roma
68	Raja William I sang Penakluk	Meletakkan pembangunan Inggris modern
69	Sigmund Freud	Pendiri sekolah Freud untuk psikologi, ahli psikoanalisis
70	Edward Jenner	Penemu vaksin cacar
71	Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen	Penemu sinar X
72	Johann Sebastian Bach	Komponis
73	Lao Tzu	Pendiri Taoisme
74	Voltaire	Penulis dan filsuf
75	Johannes Kepler	Astronom penemu Hukum Kepler tentang pergerakan planet
76	Enrico Fermi	Salah satu tokoh abad atom, Bapak Bom Atom
77	Leonhard Euler	Fisikawan, matematikawan penemu Kalkulus Diferensial dan Integral serta Aljabar
78	Jean-Jacques Rousseau	Filsuf dan pengarang Prancis
79	Niccolò Machiavelli	Penulis Sang Pangeran (risalat politik yang berpengaruh)
80	Thomas Robert Malthus	Ekonom penulis Esai Prinsip Populasi dalam Pengaruhnya pada Kemajuan Masa Depan pada Masyarakat
81	John Fitzgerald Kennedy	Presiden AS yang mendirikan "Program Luar Angkasa Apollo"
82	Gregory Goodwin Pincus	Endokrinolog, menemukan pil KB
83	Mani (en)	Nabi Iran abad ke-3, Pendiri Manicheanisme
84	Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov)	Tokoh revolusioner dan pemimpin Rusia
85	Kaisar Sui Wen	Menyatukan Tiongkok, pendiri Dinasti Sui
86	Vasco da Gama	Navigator, penemu rute pelayaran Eropa ke India
87	Raja Cyrus yang Agung	Pendiri kekaisaran Persia
88	Tsar Peter yang Agung	Mendekatkan Rusia kepada Eropa
89	Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)	Bapak Maoisme, komunisme Tiongkok
90	Sir Francis Bacon	Filsuf, menggambarkan secara induktif metode ilmiah
91	Henry Ford	Pembuat mobil model T
92	Meng Tse	Filsuf, pendiri sekolah Konfusianisme
93	Zarathustra (Zoroaster)	Pendiri Zoroastrianisme
94	Ratu Elizabeth I	Ratu Inggris, memperbaiki Gereja Inggris setelah Ratu Mary
95	Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev	Perdana Menteri Rusia yang mengakhiri Komunisme di Uni Soviet dan Eropa Timur
96	Raja Menes	Menyatukan Mesir Hulu dan Hilir
97	Kaisar Charlemagne	Kaisar Romawi Suci
98	Homer	Penyair epik
99	Kaisar Justinianus I	Kaisar Romawi Timur, menaklukkan kembali sebagian Kekaisaran Romawi Barat
100	Mahavira	Pendiri Jainisme

Tokoh-tokoh Terhormat

Nama	Pengaruh
St. Thomas Aquinas	Filsuf Kristen awal yang berpengaruh
Archimedes	Matematikawan dan insinyur besar Yunani kuno
Charles Babbage	Matematikawan dan penemu pelopor Komputer
Kaisar Khufu (Cheops)	Pembangun Piramida Besar
Marie Curie	fisikawan penemu radioaktif
Benjamin Franklin	Politikus Amerika dan penemu penangkal petir
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi	Pemimpin India dan pembaharu Hindu
Abraham Lincoln	Presiden ke-16 AS, memimpin selama Perang Sipil AS
Ferdinand Magellan	Navigator, memberi nama Samudra Pasifik, pertama kali mengelilingi dunia
Leonardo da Vinci	Seniman, penemu

Balloon

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For other uses, see Balloon (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

Balloons are given for special occasions, e.g. birthdays or holidays.

Balloons are often used as party décor.

A balloon is an inflatable flexible bag filled with a gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or air. Modern balloons can be made from materials such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric, while some early balloons were made of dried animal bladders.^{[citation needed]} Some balloons are used for decorative purposes, while others are used for practical purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense, or transportation. A balloon's properties, including its low density and low cost, have led to a wide range of applications. The inventor of the rubber balloon, (the most common balloon) was Michael Faraday in 1824, via experiments with various gases.^[1]

Contents 1 Applications 1.1 Decoration or entertainment 1.1.1 Balloon modeling and balloons in art 1.1.2 Balloon drops and releases 1.1.3 Balloon publicity 1.1.4 Water balloons 1.1.5 Balloon rockets 1.2 Flying machines 1.3 Medicine 2 Safety and environmental concerns 3 Physics 3.1 Air Pressure 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Further reading 7 External links

Applications

Decoration or entertainment

Main article: Toy balloon

Decorative arches made of party balloons

Party balloons are mostly made of a natural latex tapped from rubber trees, and can be filled with air, helium, water, or any other suitable liquid or gas. The rubber's elasticity makes the volume adjustable.

Filling the balloon with air can be done with the mouth, a manual or electric inflator (such as a hand pump), or with a source of compressed gas.

When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they typically retain their buoyancy for only a day or so. The enclosed helium atoms escape through small pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, sometimes for up to a week.

Even a perfect rubber balloon eventually loses gas to the outside. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion. The inside of balloons can be treated with a special gel (for instance, the polymer solution sold under the "Hi Float" brand) which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage, thus increasing float time to a week or longer.

Animal-shaped balloons

Beginning in the late 1970s, some more expensive (and longer-lasting) foil balloons made of thin, unstretchable, less permeable metalized plastic films started being produced. These balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with color pictures and patterns for gifts and parties. The most important attribute of metalized nylon for balloons is its light weight, increasing buoyancy and its ability to keep the helium gas from escaping for several weeks. Foil balloons have been criticized for interfering with power lines.^[2][3]

Professional balloon party decorators use electronic equipment to set the exact amount of helium to fill the balloon. For non-floating balloons air inflators are used. Professional quality balloons are used, which differ from most retail packet balloons by being larger in size and made from 100% biodegradable latex.

Balloon modeling and balloons in art

Balloon artists are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures (see balloon modelling). The balloons used for sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is inversely proportional to the diameter of the balloon^{[citation needed]}, these tiny tubular balloons are extremely hard to inflate initially. A pump is usually used to inflate these balloons.

Decorators may use helium balloons to create balloon sculptures. Usually the round shape of the balloon restricts these to simple arches or walls, but on occasion more ambitious "sculptures" have been attempted. It is also common to use balloons as tables decorations for celebratory events. Balloons can sometimes be modeled to form shapes of animals. Table decorations normally appear with three or five balloons on each bouquet. Ribbon is curled and added with a weight to keep the balloons from floating away.

Menno Baars is the first contemporary artist to balloons into art. Within five days the Dutch artist painted a large primitive female nude on the huge balloon screen (800 m2) in his typical violent colors and broad brush stroke. The balloon work of art was named "The independent Woman".

Balloon drops and releases

A decorative use for balloons is in balloon drops. In a balloon drop, a plastic bag or net filled with air-inflated balloons is suspended from a fixed height. Once released, the balloons fall onto their target area below. Balloon drops are commonly performed at New Year's Eve celebrations and at political rallies and conventions, but may also be performed at celebrations, including graduations and weddings.

For decades, people have also celebrated with balloon releases. This practice has been discouraged by the Balloon Industry, as it has posed problematic for the environment and cities. In recent years, legislation has been enacted to enforce consumers and retailers to tether helium-filled foil (BoPET) balloons with a balloon weight. This ensures that the helium-filled balloons do not float into the atmosphere, which is both potentially injurious to animals, the environment, and power lines.

At many events, the balloons may contain prizes, and party-goers can pop the balloons to retrieve the items inside.

Balloon publicity

Balloons are used for publicity at major events. Screen-printing processes can be used to print designs and company logos onto the balloons. In January 2008, the Jewish Community Relations Council of New York organized a display of 4,200 red balloons outside the United Nations building.^[4]

Water balloons

Main article: Water balloon

Water balloons are thin, small rubber balloons filled with liquid, usually water, instead of a gas, and intended to be easily broken. They are usually used by children, who throw them at each other, trying to get each other wet, as a game, competition, or practical joke. By forcing water out the open end of a water balloon, it is possible to use it as a makeshift water gun.

Balloon rockets

Main article: Balloon rocket

Balloons are often deliberately released, creating so called balloon rocket or rocket balloon. Rocket balloons work because the elastic balloons contract on the air within them, and so when the mouth of the balloon is left open, the gas within the balloon shoots out, and, due to Newton's third law of motion, the balloon is propelled forward. This is the same way that a rocket works.^[5]

Flying machines

Hot air balloons, San Diego, California

Flying above the Ancient City during the Ferrara Balloons Festival, Italy

Main article: Balloon (aircraft)

Large balloons filled with hot air or buoyant gas (often hydrogen or helium) have been used as flying machines since the 18th century. The earliest flights were made with hot air balloons using air heated with a flame, or hydrogen; later, helium was used. Unlike an airship, a balloon travels with the wind.

Medicine

Angioplasty is a surgical procedure in which very small balloons are inserted into blocked or partially blocked blood vessels near the heart. Once in place, the balloon is inflated to clear or compress arterial plaque, and to stretch the walls of the vessel, thus preventing myocardial infarction. A small stent can be inserted at the angioplasty site to keep the vessel open after the balloon's removal.^[6]

Balloon catheters are catheters that have balloons at their tip to keep them from slipping out. For example, the balloon of a Foley catheter is inflated when the catheter is inserted into the urinary bladder and secures its position.^[7]

Safety and environmental concerns

Further information: Marine debris

There has been some environmental concern over metallized nylon balloons, as they do not biodegrade or shred as rubber balloons do. Release of these types of balloons into the atmosphere is considered harmful to the environment. This type of balloon can also conduct electricity on its surface and released foil balloons can become entangled in power lines and cause power outages.^[8]

Released balloons can land anywhere, including on nature reserves or other areas where they pose a serious hazard to animals through ingestion or entanglement. Because of the harm to wildlife and the effect of litter on the environment, some jurisdictions even legislate to control mass balloon releases. Legislation proposed in Maryland, US, was named after Inky, a pygmy Sperm Whale who needed six operations after swallowing debris, the largest piece of which was a mylar balloon.^[9][10] To date, there is no documentary evidence to suggest that the death of any sea mammal has been attributed to foil balloons as a sole cause.^[11] In the United Kingdom, foil balloons sold at major theme parks and Zoos have balloon weights attached to help prevent accidental release into the environment.^[12]

Anthony Andrady says that releases of latex balloons that descend into the sea pose a serious ingestion and/or entanglement hazard to marine animals because balloons exposed floating in seawater deteriorate much more slowly than those exposed in air.^[13] Balloon manufacturers will often state that a latex balloon is perfectly safe to release into the environment as it is made from a natural substance and will biodegrade over time. However a latex balloon can take up to a year to degrade if it lands in the sea and during this time it is possible for a marine animal to ingest the balloon and die from slow starvation if its digestive system is blocked.

NABAS (National Association of Balloon Artists and Suppliers), a non-profitable organisation that represents the UK balloon industry sets out best practice guidelines to promote balloon safety.^[14] NABAS is currently taking on board ISO 14001 to ensure that environmental standards are laid down for the whole UK balloon industry, and to heighten awareness of environmental issues related to balloons. As part of this programme, NABAS has begun discussions with TerraCycle to formulate a feasibility programme for upcycling foil balloons into other products.

Physics

Air Pressure

Further information: Air Pressure

Once inflated with regular, atmospheric air, the air inside the balloon will have a greater air pressure than the original atmospheric air pressure.^[15]

Air pressure, technically, is a measurement of the amount of collisions against a surface at any time. In the case of balloon, it's supposed to measure how many particles at any in any given time space collide with the wall of the balloon and bounce off. However, since this is near impossible to measure, air pressure seems to be easier described as density. The similarity comes from the idea that when there are more molecules in the same space, more of them will be heading towards a collision course with the wall.

The first concept of air pressure within a balloon that is necessary to know is that air pressures "try" to even out. With all the bouncing against the balloon wall (both interior and exterior) there will be a certain amount of expansion/contraction. As air pressure itself is a description of the total forces against an object, each of these forces, on the outside of the balloon, causes the balloon to contract a tiny bit, while the inside forces cause the balloon to expand. With this knowledge, one would immediately assume the a balloon with high air pressure inside would expand based on the high amount of internal forces, and vice versa.

This would make the inside and outside air pressures equal.

However, balloons have a certain elasticity to them that some needs to be taken into account. When you stretch a balloon, you are filling it with potential energy. When you let it go, the potential energy is turned into kinetic energy and the balloon snaps back into its original position (though perhaps a little stretched out).

When you fill up a balloon with air, the balloon is being stretched. While the balloon is constantly releasing kinetic energy in an attempt to contract, it is also being pushed back out by the constant bouncing of the internal air molecules.

Basically, the internal air has to exert force not only to counteract the external air to keep the air pressures "even," but it also has to counteract the natural contraction of the balloon. Therefore, it requires more air pressure (more force) than the air outside the balloon wall.^[16]

Balloons may also be used to cheer someone up. A.A. Milne notes this when his character, Winnie the Pooh says "No one can be uncheered by a balloon."

See also

• Aerobot
• Balloon-carried light effect
• Foam balloon
• List of balloon uses
• Pig bladder
• Pneumatic bladder
• Radiosonde
• Rockoon
• Speech balloon
• Two-balloon experiment
• Balloon modelling

Notes

1. ^ Swain, Heather (2010) These Toys: 101 Clever Creations Using Everyday Items Penguin, 2010
2. ^ "Metallic balloons spark controversy". Los Angeles Times. April 8, 2008. Retrieved April 15, 2010.]
3. ^ "New bill to ban certain balloons". ABC. April 8, 2008.Retrieved April 15, 2010.]
4. ^ 4,200 balloons released in NY to protest Qassam fire, By Neta Sela, Ynet News, January 24, 2008.
5. ^ Zimmerman Jones, Andrew. "Scientific Explanation: Why the Rocket Balloon Works". How to Create a Rocket Balloon. About:Physics. http://physics.about.com/od/classroomphysics/ss/balloonrocket_5.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-29.
6. ^ Berger, Alan (2006-05-30). "Angioplasty". Medical Encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002953.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
7. ^ Bellis, Mary. "History of the Catheter - Balloon Catheter - Thomas Fogarty". About: Inventors. About. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcatheter.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
8. ^ Atineh Haroutunian 6/3/2008 (818) 548-3381. "Mylar Balloons Spark Power Outages". Glendalewaterandpower.com. http://www.glendalewaterandpower.com/news.aspx?item=40. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
9. ^ "MARP Sponsors Inky Legislation". National Aquarium in Baltimore. Archived from the original on 2008-08-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20080807124645/http://www.aqua.org/oceanhealth_inkylegislation.html. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
10. ^ "Legislation regulating the release of balloons". Clean Virginia Waterways. http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/balloonlaws.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
11. ^ "FAQ: Are sea mammals at risk?". The Balloon Council. http://www.balloonhq.com/BalloonCouncil/faq.html#sea. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
12. ^ "Environmental Policy Statement". Balloon Supply & Distribution Ltd.. http://www.balloonsupply.co.uk/index.php?_a=viewDoc&docId=22. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
13. ^ Andrady, A.L. (2006-08-06). "Plastics and Their Impacts in the Marine Environment". Proceedings of the International Marine Debris Conference on Derelict Fishing Gear and the Ocean Environment. Hawaii: Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary. p. 140.
14. ^ "NABAS: The Balloon Association". NABAS (National Association of Balloon Artists and Suppliers). http://www.nabas.co.uk/. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
15. ^ Serway, Raymond, Chris Vuille, and Jerry Faughn. College Physics, Volume 10. Cengage Learning, 2008.
16. ^ "Balloons." Reach Out Michigan. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Nov 2010. <http://www.reachoutmichigan.org/funexperiments/agesubject/lessons/newton/balloon.html>.

Further reading

"Reader's Digest: Stories Behind Everyday Things"; New York: Reader's Digest, 1980.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Balloons

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Balloon.

• Stratospheric balloons, history and present Historical recopilation project on the use of stratospheric balloons in the scientific research, the military field and the aerospace activity
• National trade association for the UK balloon industry
• Balloon and Party Industry alliance for the UK and European Balloon and Party industry
• National trade association for the Australasian balloon industry
• Royal Engineers Museum^{[dead link]} Royal Engineers and Aeronautics
• [1] Menno Baars hot air balloon
• Royal Engineers Museum^{[dead link]} Early British Military Ballooning (1863)
• Invitations for Kids Party

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由電力驅 動的雙軌列車

鐵路列車，亦稱列車，俗稱火車，是指在鐵路軌道上行駛的車輛，通常由多節車廂所組成。

目录 1 種類 1.1 所载货物 1.2 路轨 1.3 列车动力 2 發展 3 動力 4 客車 5 相册 6 火车的动画 7 貨車

種類

按不同条件区分，火车可以有多个分类

所载货物

鐵路列車按載荷物，可分為運貨的貨車和載客的客車（客運車）；亦有兩者一起的客貨車。客車中，有的是高速列車。

路轨

按路軌分類，列車可分為普通軌道、單軌、磁懸浮。亦有登山鐵路特別使用的齒軌鐵路、及由纜索拉動的纜索鐵路。

列车动力

按列車的動力來源，有使用蒸汽機車、柴油機車、電力機車牽引，亦有使用自走的動車組。

某些列車由多過一個的機車牽引。在北美洲，貨車經常是由三、四個以至五個機車重聯牽引。另外也有把機車置於列車頭尾及中間位置牽引，如大秦鐵路。

也有列車是專門為軌道維修而設的。

發展

俄罗斯原始的铁路运输系统。

1831 年8月9日，德威特‧克林頓‧普爾德駕駛著火車行駛在紐約的奧爾巴尼客運鐵路線。1840年代，開始使用機械臂板號機。1857年， 人們開始使用比鍛鐵鐵軌更堅固的鋼軌。1863年，英國倫敦建成第一條地下鐵路。

1864 年，喬治‧M‧普爾曼設計出一種新型的臥鋪車。1879年， 世界最早的電力火車開始運行。1931年，第一條從東到西橫越非洲大陸的本格拉一加丹加鐵路在南部非洲建 成通車。

動力

最初的列車是由繩索或馬匹拉動的。到了十九世紀，多數的列車都改由蒸汽機車牽引。1940年代以後蒸汽機車漸由較清潔及需要較少勞力的柴油機車取代，後來又出現電力機車及動車組。

電氣化鐵路的最初投資很大，但按每里計算則是運作成本最低的。因此只有高流量的線路才適合電氣化。電氣化列車可能 使用高架電纜或第三軌取電。

以動力的單位千瓦特（KW）除以能夠牽引的重量公噸（Ton）來計算動力機車頭的效能稱為牽引能力比，蒸汽機車效能最低，其次是柴油機車（電力傳動比液力傳動效益高），電力機車或是電聯車相對而言就經濟的多。因為不需消耗額外的動能來牽引產生動力的引擎。

牽引動能比由小排到大依序為：客機、摩托車、一般家庭的汽車、公路上跑的卡車、農用牽引機、全連結車、蒸氣機車、柴油動力機車、柴電機車、電力機車 頭、柴聯車、高鐵電聯車、電聯車、客輪、漁船、油輪。

若考慮單位燃料或是單位動力的成本來營運軌道車輛，是以小編組來做區間運轉有最佳能量使用經濟效益，也就是4車一編組。每站都停的通勤電聯車最具效益。

客車

機車牽引的客車

載客的列車用客車廂，把乘客從車站運送列另一車站。車站間的距離可能不足一公里，亦有可能長達數百公里。

長途客車有時會附帶餐車，或有卧車。一般的高速鐵路很少有卧車，因為它們一般在入黑以前便會到抵達目的地。

部份的高速列車的車身可以擺動，稱為擺式列車，以便在轉彎時無需降低車速。

城市之間不停沿途小站的市際列車稱為快車或特快。各小站都停的稱為普通客車、普客或慢 車。

有些大城市有短距離的通勤列車往來市郊住宅區及市中心。這些通勤列車經常亦是城市軌道交通系統的一部分。很多的通勤車都是以站立為主，座位較少。有些地區會用雙層客車來增加載客。而高 速列車及卧車亦有是雙層的。

城市軌道交通系有時被稱作地下鐵路，但它們在市中心以外可能會在路面或架空路軌上行走。這類列車的加速及減速一般都比長途車快，通常亦有更多的車門 以供乘客上落。

路面電車或輕便鐵路一般最多只會有兩個車廂一同行走。路面電車通常會與其他車在同一條馬路上行駛。輕便鐵路是對很多現代化路面 電車的稱謂，因為它們介乎路面電車及重鐵（即一般鐵路列車）之間。路面電車跟輕便鐵路其實沒有很明確的分野，很多時分類都是約定俗成。

磁浮鐵路及單軌鐵路是鐵路列車中較先進的新發明，不過應用仍然很少。

地 下鐵路、輕便鐵路、通勤列車有時會被統稱為快速運輸系統。

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貨車

貨運列車拖動的是貨車載貨車廂。

貨運列車

世上鐵路運輸使用得最多的是鐵路貨運。美國的 鐵路主要是用作貨運。

在合適的情況下，鐵路貨運比道路貨運便宜很多，亦更節省能源。鐵路貨運最適合用來長途運載大量的貨物。但對於短途或小量的貨物則較為不適合。鐵路貨 運的最大缺點是缺乏彈性。在不少國家鐵路貨運正漸被以道路貨運取代。但亦有很多政府因為環境的考慮，而設法鼓勵使用鐵路。

鐵路使用的載貨車廂有多種，現代最常見的是貨櫃（集裝箱）車。它們可以由起重機吊起，從車廂運到船或貨車上。 有些國家的貨櫃車廂採用附帶方式，又稱為「背載式運輸」（piggyback），貨櫃車可以把貨櫃連拖架駛上列車車廂上。到達目的地後直接由貨櫃車頭把貨櫃開 走。英國、法國之間的英法海峽隧道鐵路線便是採用這種設計。

其他的貨車車廂包括有：運送車輛的平車、散裝貨物的敞車、冷凍食物的冷藏車、運送豬或牛等動物的棚車、運送煤炭壙物穀類的漏斗車、運送汽油等液體的 罐車及運送闊大貨物的大物車等等。

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鐵路列車

来自“http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%90%B5%E8%B7%AF%E5%88%97%E8%BB%8A”

2个分类: 鐵路 | 鐵